Freedom And Its Effect On Society - 1344 Words

Freedom comes in many different levels in our society with freedoms being tested and tried differently in various countries. The term ‘freedom’ as with many things can be interrupted in many different ways with different cultures and religious beliefs affecting what freedoms you may or may not have. we live in a society where we are lucky in that we are able to express our freedoms more widely than a lot of states can. Decisions like going to school or holiday is expressing our freedom without really realising as many children cannot go to school or be able to afford or even go on holiday. Even though sometimes we might be limited to our freedoms for example we might not be able to play our music as loud as we want to at home because the neighbours might complain (Andrews. G, Czajka. A, O’cain. A, Prokhovnik .R ,2015). But this is a negotiating in society we have to deal with in order for a society to work. In terms of political freedoms we have the right to vote and to choose our next government which is a fundamental freedom as it insures that our freedoms will still continue (Andrews. G, Czajka. A, O’cain. A, Prokhovnik .R,2015). Equality is concept which we should all value highly. Equality should mean that everyone should be fundamentally treated the same does not matter what gender, nationality, colour or sexual preference (Andrews. G, Czajka. A, O’cain. A, Prokhovnik .R ,2015). To protect our equality laws might have to be passed in order to sustain that everyoneShow MoreRelatedEssay Exploring John Mills Harm Principle1580 Words   |  7 Pages Freedom is a necessary principle to abide by in order for the human race to function. On the other hand, freedom can be taken advantage of, thus resulting in harmful consequences to those directly and indirectly involved. The article, â€Å"On Liberty† by John S. 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Ethnic Disadvantage Has Not Disappeared from the Labour Market Free Essays

string(88) " categorisation of them as dependent and deviant carries an implicit moral judgment’\." LUBS3001 Gender and Equality at Work in Comparative Perspective Ethnic disadvantage has not disappeared from the labour market despite legislation. What theoretical explanations have been put forward to explain why people from ethnic and racial minorities experience discrimination? Which do you consider to be the most helpful in explaining disadvantage in the labour market? Ethnic and racial discrimination in the workplace is a controversial topic, which has been researched and assessed thoroughly over the past years. Although the terms ‘ethnicity’ and ‘race’ are often talked about in union, they have different meanings and stem from different social contexts. We will write a custom essay sample on Ethnic Disadvantage Has Not Disappeared from the Labour Market or any similar topic only for you Order Now Race is an ideology with a particular concept in mind, and can be understood in various social and historical contexts, for example when slavery was prevalent and race was an important factor for distinguishing groups in society. Race can also refer to particular physical features someone may have, for example someone’s skin colour. Ethnicity on the other hand, relates more to groups of people who share significant, common beliefs that are part of their embedded culture, and usually passed down through their heritage. Race and ethnicity are key issues in the workplace because evidence shows that when analysing different measures of achievement in the workplace, such as unemployment rates, earnings and progression into higher levels of work, ethnic minorities are disadvantaged (Cabinet Office), and although the magnitude of these disadvantages are generally decreasing over time, it is still an un-resolved issue affecting millions of people every year. Although many theoretical explanations have been proposed regarding this ‘glass ceiling’ theory (The economist, 2009) in the workplace, it is important to recognise that many of these theories are linked, and therefore there is no one prevailing answer to resolve the issue. During this essay I will discuss the Underclass theories, with reference to Murray (1989) and Wilson, (1987) theories of discrimination and racism focusing on Macpherson’s concept of institutional racism (1999), and theories of ethnic diversity in relation to human and social capital, concluding with which theories I deem to be the most explanatory in reference to this topic. Evidence of ethnic disadvantage in the labour market is plentiful, with statistics covering multiple areas of the subject. In the TUC report of Youth, Unemployment and Ethnicity (2012) it shows that the unemployment rate for White people (male and females) is 20%, for Indian, Pakistani and Bangladeshi the figure increases to 29%, and for Black/African Caribbean the figure is more than twice than that for Whites, at 45%. However, when analysing this research it is important to recognise that these employment rates may be particularly high due to the economic recession around this time affecting the labour market, but the variation in figures amongst the groups is still apparent. Similarly, this research cannot be fully analysed as different ethnic groups have been grouped together, and between these ethnicities there are substantial variations with regards to employment. An example of this arises from statistics from the Labour Force Survey (1999), which show that the unemployment rate for Indians is closer to that of Whites than it is to Bangladeshis. In the Cabinet Office report of Ethnic minorities in the Labour market (2003), information states that ‘while ethnic minorities are disadvantaged on average, the labour market successes of the Indians and Chinese show that the old picture of White success and ethnic minority under-performance is now out of date’. Although this is extremely positive progress for Indians and Chinese, there is still much more to be done to further bridge the gap between other ethnic groups in the labour market. Statistics from the Labour Force Survey (1999) show White people had an unemployment rate of just 6%, Indians 8%, Pakistanis 16%, Black Africans 17%, and Bangladeshis 24%. It is evident that Bangladeshis have the highest rate of unemployment out of these ethnic groups, and one reason for this could be due to an English language barrier. If Bangladeshi parents are not fluent in English, then not only will it be considerably harder for them to find a job, but also this disadvantage will be passed down to their children when they attend school, therefore this particular weakness is transmitted over generations, and may be one explanation for the on-going trend of high unemployment levels. Statistics also show that different ethnic groups are more susceptible to be employed in particular areas of work. Rex and Tomlinson (1979) found that in Birmingham, ‘immigrants and employed predominantly in less attractive industries and in less rewarding jobs’, (Pilkington, 2003, p61) and evidence for this can be found in the National report by Green, Owen and Wilson (2005). Research from this report shows that in the UK on average, around 8% of all jobs are filled by ethnic minority employees, yet there are various different structural positions in the labour market. Ethnic minorities are under-represented in occupations such as managers and administration, with only 12. 7% occupying these types of jobs, compared to 15. 5% for Whites. Furthermore, ethnic minorities are over-represented in occupations such as sales, at a figure of 10. 5%, compared to 7. 4% for whites. As previously mentioned, one of the main reasons employees from ethnic minorities may work in lower skilled jobs could be due to insufficient language skills. In the National report it states that in London, where 28. 8% of the population are from ethnic minorities (Ethnic minorities, Information Centre Guide 2003), there are opportunities for people to learn English via English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) provisions, however local studies in the area show this opportunity needs to be made even more accessible and on a wider scale for a positive impact to be made (Africa Educational Trust 2002). The Underclass thesis was first developed in the United States and later gained awareness in Britain due to an American journalist, Auletta in 1982. Auletta claimed that the underclass had ‘four distinct categories’, these comprising of the ‘passive poor’, ‘hostile street criminals’, ‘hustlers’ and ‘the traumatised drunks†¦and released mental patients’ (Pilkington, 2003, p52). Morris (1994) stated ‘Auletta’s categorisation of them as dependent and deviant carries an implicit moral judgment’. You read "Ethnic Disadvantage Has Not Disappeared from the Labour Market" in category "Essay examples" Although there are various definitions of the underclass, the majority of them share similar characteristics, these being unemployed by choice, dependent on welfare benefits, social exclusion, and links to crime and delinquency. It could be seen that by labelling such a diverse group as ‘the underclass’, whilst assuming they all possess these negative qualities would ultimately be extremely de-motivating, and may even result in a self-fulfilling prophecy (David Straker 2002-2012) If so, this may result in members of the underclass feeling hard work is not expected of them, resulting in little or o effort to strive for employment and integrate with society. The concept of the underclass is linked to social divisions based on gender and class, as well as race, making it a widespread topic with significance to various groups in society. Therefore, the explanations put forward for this thesis are fundamentally opposing. Conservative writers of the underclass place specific e mphasis on cultural factors, such as the surrounding environment a person has grown up in, resulting in deviant values and behaviour. On the other hand, liberal writers maintain that structural factors such as the way our society functions, result in an underclass forming due to insufficient opportunities and on-going racism. Two of the most influential accounts of the underclass that have been provided derive from Charles Murray (1984) and Wilson (1987). Murray believed a Black underclass developed in the late 1960s due to the ‘culture of the ghetto’. He claimed this shared culture amongst the Black community created lack of education and stunted employment opportunities. Evidence of this theory can be seen in the U. S. National Canter for Health Statistics (1970s), whereby statistics report more than 50% of black babies were conceived out of wedlock, an increase of more than 33% in the 1950s (The Atlantic, 1986). Murray states that these changes took place during economic expansion; therefore the reasoning for these statistics is the existence and availability of welfare benefits. Murray believed that whilst state benefits were available, there was no incentive for women to go to work, meaning when they had children these values of state dependency would be passed on and it would become the norm to be unemployed. One example of a state benefit for women was Aid to Families with Dependent Children (Social Welfare History, 1988) which provided single mothers with financial security, acting as a disincentive for both mothers and fathers, as it took away the pressure of having to provide for the family. Murray said ‘because poor, uneducated single teenaged mothers are in a bad position to raise children’ poverty and deviant values are transferred from parents to children, with the end result being a general lack of motivation and contribution to the labour force (Murray 1984). There has been considerable amount of criticism for Murray’s theory and it was generally rejected by most sociologists. One critic of the theory is Devine (1997) who argued ‘the value of AFDC benefits declined in the 1970s while the number of single parents were growing’. This would suggest there is a further underlying issue, other than welfare benefits, for the explanation of growth of unemployed single parent mothers. Morris (1994) also disputed that ‘young employed are one group in American society who have no claim to state support as of right’. Again, this would suggest that dependency on state benefits is not the main cause for unemployment amongst young people. Wilson criticised Murray’s theory by saying it ignored racial discrimination and did not account for deindustrialising, whereby there was a change from a goods-producing economy to a service-producing economy meaning people who did not possess the required skills were out of work. Wilson went on to provide a structural theory of the underclass, this being the major liberal response to Murray’s explanation. Although Wilson also acknowledged an urban underclass and agreed that their ‘behaviour contrasts sharply with that of mainstream America’ (Wilson 1987), he argued that it was because of the unfair structures of society and existing inequalities that caused lack of education and unemployment. Wilson also acknowledged that unemployment was linked to discrimination and stemmed as a result of economic changes. Racial discrimination in the rural South encouraged migration to inner cities in the North, however the situation was not aided as service work replaced the manufacturing industry, requiring skills that the majority of Black and Hispanic citizens had not acquired. Townsend (1991) agrees with Wilson’s structural theory, and concluded from his major study, Poverty in the UK (1979) that the underclass emerged due to government policies in the areas of trade unions, industry and taxation. Therefore it was due to the way that society was structured and designed which caused an underclass of unemployed, low-paid or prematurely retired workers. Although sociologists deemed Wilson’s theory as more credible that Murray’s, there is still substantial criticism on the matter. Fainstein (1992) argues that Wilson fails to recognise ‘the continuing significance of race’ which, for Black people, causes ‘segmentation into low wage employment’ (Pilkington, 2003, p55). Furthermore, Miles (1982) criticises both theories by stating that migrants have not developed a whole underclass they are just simply a ‘fraction’ of society (Sociology Central 2010). It would appear than in general the underclass theory is not the most valid explanation for inequality in the labour force as there is a lack of empirical evidence with regard to the cultural theory, and both the cultural and structural theories generalise all members of ethnic groups together, when in fact statistics vary hugely amongst individuals within these groups. Another major theory used to explain the position of ethnic minorities in the workforce is ‘institutional racism’, also referring to direct and indirect discrimination. Institutional discrimination is defined by Macpherson (1999) as ‘the collective failure of an organisation to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their colour, culture or ethnic origin’ (Pilkington, 2003, p85). Macpherson launched a police investigation into the murder of a Black teenager by five White youths, and through this inquiry concluded that all major British organisations are characterised by some form of institutional racism (Parliament UK, 2009). For Macpherson, this concept did not mean that all policies of institutions were intentionally racist; rather it arises through ‘social and cultural processes’ (Parekh 2000). The fact that institutional racism is said to stem from the occupational culture of the organisation is a major concern, as the culture of a company is usually embedded within the employees who share similar values and beliefs, and they tend to remain consistent over time. Although the Macpherson report has created new awareness regarding institutional racism (Solomas 1999), and remains to be a valid explanation for ethnic minority disadvantage in the labour market, it has also been critiqued for various reasons. One of the main critiques is that the concept is too ambiguous, with Pilkington (2001) referring to it as a ‘blunderbuss concept’. This is because the concept does not specifically refer to the different components within institutional racism. The term ‘institutional racism’ is rather broad, as it may contain elements of individual discriminatory behaviour and also direct intentional discrimination. Regardless of anti-discrimination legislation, for example The Race Relations Act (1965) intentional discrimination can still be found in some areas of the present labour force. Evidence of this type of discrimination can be seen through discrimination testing, whereby testers from different ethnic backgrounds both apply for the same job at the same time, using identical application forms. A study performed by Modood et al (1997) found one in five ethnic minority employees felt they had experienced racial discrimination, in the form of being refused a job due to racial or religious reasons, yet only one in twenty white employees felt they had every experienced any form of discrimination. This evidence may suggest that employees who have been faced with discrimination could be discouraged from future job opportunities. Ethnic minority groups may also be faced with indirect discrimination, whereby an organisation unintentionally discriminates against certain groups, for example an up-market clothing store may only employ people who fit certain appearance criteria. Combined, these various forms of discrimination in the labour force would be extremely detrimental to ethnic minority groups and appear to be one of the major contributors to patterns of employment amongst ethnic groups. Ethnic diversity and patterns of discrimination amongst ethnic minority groups can also, to an extent, be explained by patterns of inequality. Social capital can be seen as an important aspect of society, which may provide some explanation for the diversity amongst ethnic groups. Putnam (1995) defines social capital as ‘features of social life –networks, norms, and trust that enable participants to act together more effectively to pursue shared objectives’. Social policy is linked to all members of a community and the social networks, and social norms or values within our society. The fact that social policy is composed of shared customs within a society, would suggest that members of minority ethnic groups may not be part of this concept, as they are likely to have different values as their cultures and backgrounds will vary. This could result in ethnic minority groups feeling segregated from the local community, especially if they have not lived there for very long, and therefore have not yet integrated with neighbours or fellow citizens. The terms ‘social capital’ and more specifically, ‘bonding social capital’, are significant when discussing the labour force as they refer to networking with people and communicating through shared objectives. Nowadays, with high levels of competitiveness in the work force, it is extremely advantageous to have general networking links into different areas of the labour market, and often the phrase ‘It’s not what you know, but who you know’ is used. Employers will often create a workforce of people that they can trust, or at least someone who has come with a trust-worthy reference, perhaps suggested by a colleague. Therefore, if ethnic minority members do not share this same sense of social capital and appear to have few or no network connections, it will be harder for them to succeed in the labour force and ultimately could it have a significant effect on their employment status. This theory of social capital can also be linked to why less ethnic minority graduates are taken on by large firms after university, than Whites. Statistics provided by the Higher Education Statistics Agency from 2007-08 showed 66% of Whites found full-time or part-time employment within one year of graduation compared to 56. % for minority ethnic groups. Although the figure is not alarmingly higher, one reason for the difference could be due to social capital and networking advantages. Work experience completed throughout university years can often be acquired using contacts, and the majority of employees will consider the quality and amount of work experience endured before employing a graduate. Although this essay is primarily focused on ethnicity, it is also important to consider religion as a contributory factor for patterns of inequality in the labour force. Religion can often be a trigger for discriminatory behaviour, for example since the 9/11 terrorist attacks the term ‘Islamophobia’ was used more widely, this referring to fear of Muslims. Many types of religion are expressed using distinctive types of clothing, such as a turban, making it apparent to others what religion someone may be, which could lead to discrimination. Lindley (2002) compared employment and earnings across ethnic groups within five religious groups, and compared these results with that of Whites. Evidence was provided to show Muslims were substantially disadvantaged compared to other ethnic minorities, however other factors such as individual attitudes and levels of motivation may have also contributed to these statistics. Religion can also be linked to the previously mentioned topic of social capital, as members of a particular faith may choose to socialise only with people who share their same beliefs and values, which would affectively limit opportunities of bridging social capital in mainstream society. To conclude, with the aid of various legislation and trade unions, the positioning of ethnic minorities in the labour market has advanced over the past forty years. However, regardless of this improvement, discrimination in the workforce and ethnic penalties are still prominent. From examining theoretical explanations for the disadvantage of ethnic minorities in the labour force, it would seem that the answer lies within a number of different causes. Although some of the theories seem more plausible explanations than others, for example theories that recognise racial disadvantage along with the concept of ethnic diversity are more accepted than that of the underclass thesis, it is still important to acknowledge all of the theories, as individually they all provide possible explanations. There is not one possible reason for ethnic and racial disadvantage, more than it is due to a combination of factors such as discrimination in the workplace, economic restructuring overtime, and race, religion and ethnicity. Further aspects are also relevant to consider, such as historic patterns of migration and also class and gender. Various elements of these theories will be more applicable depending on the group in question, and it is also essential to recognise that within different ethnic groups, statistics vary considerably making it un-reliable to treat groups as one whole instead of addressing the individuals within. Bibliography Books BRADLEY, H. , HEALY, G. , FORSON, C and KAUL, P. 2007 Equal Opportunities Commission. Manchester. BRADLEY, H. , HEALY, G. , 2008 Ethnicity and Gender at Work. Inequalities, Careers and Employment Relations London: Palgrave Macmillan CHEUNG, S. Y, HEATH, A and SMITH, S. N, 2007 Unequal Chances: Ethnic Minorities in Western Labour Markets. Proceedings of the British Academy. Oxford: Oxford University Press CLARK, K. and DRINKWATER, S 2007 Ethnic minorities in the labour market: dynamics and diversity York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation. HOLDAWAY, S. and O’NEIL, M. (2007) ‘Where has all the racism gone? Views of racism in constabularies after Macpherson’. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 30, 3: 397-415. PILKINGTON, A. 003 Racial Disadvantage and Ethnic Diversity in Britain. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan SHAH, P. , 2011 ‘Ethnic and religious diversity in Britain. Where are we going? ‘ in HEALY, G, KIRTON, G. , and NOON, M Equality, Inequalities and Diversity. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan TOWNSEND, P, 1979 Poverty in the United Kingdom. Great Britain: University of California. Websites CABINET OFFICE. 2009. Ethnic mi norities and the Labour market Final report [online]. [Accessed 26 October 2012]. Available from: http://www. irr. org. uk/pdf/em_labour_market. pdf GORDAN, L. 1998. Aid to dependant children, the Legal history [online]. [Accessed 21 October 2012]. Available from: http://www. socialwelfarehistory. com/programs/aid-to-dependent-children-the-legal-history/ GREEN, A. OWEN, D. WILSON, R. 2005. Changing patterns of employment by ethnic groups and for migrant workers [online]. [Accessed 27 October 2012]. Available from: https://docs. google. com/viewer? a=vq=cache:KVKNA4lMHX4J:dera. ioe. ac. uk/6250/1/nat-changingpatternsofemploymenttechnicalreport-re-may2006. pdf+national+report+green+owen+wilsonhl=enpid=blsrcid=ADGEES HIGHER EDUCATION STATISICS AGENCY. 1993. [online]. ]Accessed 29 October 2012]. 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Available from: https://docs. google. com/viewer? a=vq=cache:zWnhexhVW8cJ:www. ons. gov. uk/ons/rel/lms/labour-market-tren ds–discontinued-/volume-110–no–12/the-new-ethnicity-classification-in-the-labour-force-survey. pd STAKER, D. 2002-2012. Self-Fulfilling Prophecy [online]. [Accessed 26 October 2012]. Available from: http://changingminds. org/explanations/theories/self-fulfilling_prophecy. htm THE NATIONAL ARCHIVES. [online]. [Accessed 21 October 2012]. Available from: www. legislation. gov. uk/ukpga/1976/74 TUC report. 2012. Youth, unemployment and ethnicity [online]. [Accessed 28 October 2012]. Available from: www. tuc. org. uk/economy/index. cfm? mins=364 WALL STREET JOURNAL. 1986. The Economist [online]. [Accessed 27 October 2012]. Available from: http://www. economist. com/node/13604240 Word count – 3201 How to cite Ethnic Disadvantage Has Not Disappeared from the Labour Market, Essay examples

Napoleon Argumentative Essay Example For Students

Napoleon Argumentative Essay World History Term paperNapoleon was one of the most influential people in the history of the world. He has affected people throughout the globe in many ways. He rose through the confusion of the French revolution to become Emperor of the French. His goal was to conquer all of Europe. Through out his lifetime he nearly succeeded in his goal. Napoleon was probably one of the greatest military leaders that ever lived. Napoleon Bonaparte, who is also known as the little Corsican†, was born on August 15,1769 in Ajaccio, Corsica. He was known as the â€Å"little Corsican† because of his height of 5 feet 2 inches. He had 7 brothers and sisters. His original name was Napoleone Buonaparte in Corsica but it became Napoleon Bonaparte in French. His parents were Carlo (Charles) Buonaparte (1746-1785) and Letizia Ramolino Buonaparte (1750-1836). His original nationality was Corsican-Italian. He hated the French. He thought they were oppressors of his native land. His father was a la wyer, and was also anti-French. One reason Napoleon may have been such a conqueror was he was raised in a family of radicals. When Napoleon was nine, his father sent him to a French military government school. He attended Brienne in Paris. While there, the French students teased him. Because of this, Napoleon started having dreams of personal glory and triumph. In 1784 to 1785, Napoleon attended Ecole, Militaire in Paris. That was the place where he received his military training. He studied to be an artillery man and an officer. He finished his training and joined the French army when he was 16 years old. Napoleon was a National Guard for Corsica until 1793 when Corsica declared independence. Napoleon and his family then fled to France. He was then assigned, as a captain, to an army that was approaching Toulon. Napoleon soon took over France. After the French monarchy was overthrown on August 10, 1792, Napoleon decided to make his move up in the ranks. After this, Napoleon started becoming a recognized officer. In 1792, Napoleon was prompted to the rank of captain. In 1793, he was chosen to direct the artillery against the siege in Toulon. He seized ground where he could get his guns in range of the British ships. Soon after Toulon fell, Napoleon was promoted to the rank of brigadier general. In 1795, he saved the revolutionary government by controlling a group of rioting citizens by using a famous technique of his. He loaded a bunch of pellets into a cannon and fired it at the crowd. Napoleon was made commander of the French army in Italy. He defeated four Austrian generals in succession, and each army he fought got bigger and bigger. This forced Austria and its allies to make peace with France. But after this, Napoleon was relieved of his command. He was poor and was suspected of treason. Napoleon had no friends. No one would have suspected what Napoleon would do next. In 1796, Napoleon was appointed to put down a revolt in Paris. He calmly took complete co ntrol of the situation. He had his men shoot all the rebels in the streets. The French government was saved, but they decided to form a new government called the Directory. Under the new government, Napoleon was made commander of the French army in Italy. During this campaign, the French realized how smart Napoleon was. He developed a tactic that worked very efficiently. He would cut the enemys army in to two parts, then throw all his force on one side before the other side could rejoin them. This method was extremely effective against the Sardinian troops, because he defeated them five times in 11 days. This made the King of Sardinia to try to make peace with France. Napoleon could not be stopped. He was a fast thinker who moved his troops extremely fast. Soon, instead of taking the defensive position, Napoleon started taking the offensive position and thus, he started his conquest of Europe. He started his attack on Austria. It was his first big campaign. During one attack, he sho wed his bravery by forcing his way across a burning bridge. After that his troops gave him the name Petit Caporal or in English Little Corporal. He then attacked the Austrians in Mantua. Austria sent troops there four times, and every time Napoleon crushed them. In 1797, he came within 80 miles of Vienna when Austria surrendered. Napoleon had won 14 pitched battles and 70 combats. He had made the rich lands he conquered feed and pay the French soldiers. Plus millions of francs were sent to France. This helped Frances poor economy tremendously. Napoleon negotiated a treaty called Campo Formio with Austria. Austria gave up Netherlands and Lombardy to France. Austria also recognized the Rhine as the eastern boundary of France. In return, France gave Austria most of the old Venetian Republic. When Napoleon returned to Paris, he received a huge welcome. He then began thinking of pursuing political power and military power. He wanted to become the next Alexander the Great, so he asked the Directory if he could take a large army to Egypt. That way he could conquer an empire that included Egypt, India, and other middle and Far East places. Napoleon came up with a neat idea to accomplish this. If he conquered Egypt, he could attack the Englishs route to India. He won the battle of the Pyramids in July 1798. But his fleet was destroyed at the Battle of the Nile in Aboukir Bay. So, Napoleon decided to invade Syria. The English and Turkish troops in Syria had held up against Napoleon. Napoleon then retreated to Egypt. Then later in July 1799, he defeated 10,000 Turks at Aboukir. He returned to France shortly after. Napoleon returned to find the Directory a mess. He, in his selfish way, saw this as the perfect time for self-advancement. Napoleon worked with Emmanuel Sieyes to overthrow the Directory, succeeding on 9 November 1799. Napoleon set up a government called the Consulate. He was the first of three consuls. About three years later the grateful French nation voted t o make him Consul for life. Everyone in France loved Napoleon at that time. Then he started increasing his power. Napoleon became known as Napoleon I, Emperor of the French, instead of General Bonaparte. He had complete political and military power in France. But alas, he still hadnt built up his great Eastern Empire. He wanted to recreate the empire Charlemagne was ruler of many years ago. The Austrians had been defeated at Marenegro. The German states and England were tired of fighting so they signed a peace treaty of Aimens in 1802. This was the first time since 1792 that France was at peace with the whole world. During the next 14 months of peace, Napoleon changed Europe greatly. He became president of the Italian Republic and reshaped Switzerland with France. He annexed Piedmont, Parma, and the island of Elba to France. Napoleon also reshaped a lot of France. He re-established the University of France, reformed the education system, and founded the Bank of France and the Legion of Honor. He also codified the Napoleonic Code: The first clear, compact statement of the French law. The Napoleonic Code has served as a base for legal systems around the world! Napoleons most lasting effect on France and much of the world was the set of civil laws that he instituted that still bears his name to this day. This code was so impressive that by 1960 over 70 different states either modeled their own laws after them or adopted them verbatim. The Code of Napoleon took the over 14,000 decrees that had been passed under the Revolutionary Government and simplified them into one unified set of laws. In 1803, war broke out again, this time between France and England. Russia, Austria and Sweden allied with Britain forming The Third Coalition against the French. Napoleon didnt have any trouble with this. He defeated Austria and Russia at Austerlitz on December 2, 1805. He crushed the Prussians at Pena and defeated more Russians at Friedland. He then created a peace treaty calle d the Peace of Tilsit that brought all of Europe to his feet. Napoleon had planned to invade England whom he called a nation of shopkeepers but the right moment never showed up. In preparation for that war, he sold Louisiana to the United States for $15 million dollars to raise funds for his wars. Englands navy, under the capable hands of Admiral Lord Horatio Nelson, crushed Napoleon’s sea power together wit the Spanish fleet at Trafalgar Cape on October 21, 1805. With his defeat at Trafalgar, Napoleon went back to the drawing board figure out how to defeat the British. Meanwhile back in France, the people allowed Napoleon to remove the Consulate and turn it into an empire. He decided to hand the throne down to his descendants. But he had no descendants. He ended his marriage to Josephine de Beauharnais in 1809 and remarried in 1810. He married Hapsburg Archduchess Marie Louise, who was the daughter of the Austrian emperor. Well, he got what he wanted, a son. He named his son King of Rome. Napoleon had also made all the rulers of his kingdom either family members or good friends. This made him very secure. He wiped out most of the German states, which totally dissolved what was left of the Holy Roman Empire. By this time, he was the ruler of a huge empire. He had over 42 million people at his control. A short time after napoleon’s victory at the Battle of Austerlitz, Napoleon finally defeated both the Austrian and the Prussian forces. Austria was defeated at Wagram and began to withdraw from their territories in France. After that, Napoleon eliminated the Prussians after he had defeated them at the battle of Jena-Auerstadt. Then, he annexed Prussia to his huge empire and stripped it of its dominions. Napoleon had goals for improving education in France. After coming to power he discovered he did not have enough trained personnel to administer his empire. This included architects, engineers, and scientists. Additionally he viewed education as a me ans of teaching the masses with the right principles. This meant removing education from the control of the church and placing it under state control. (This was something the Revolution had only partially done.) That being said, he expected two things from the schools. First was the training of middle-class boys to be civil and military leaders. Secondly, he wanted the educational system to be absolutely uniform. He wanted to be able to pull his watch out of his pocket at any time and tell what was going on at any school. . By 1812, it was estimated that only one child in eight was enrolled in a primary school. The institutes of higher learning had a large percentage of its students in professional studies, with almost 30% studying medicine or science. However, the difficulty of finding subordinates with the technical training to execute his industrial and engineering projects, and the bent of his own genius, led Napoleon to emphasize the training of the scientist as equally importa nt with the training of the scholar, and his efforts helped to make France the home of scientific thought in the early years of the nineteenth century. As an indoctrinating tool, it was more successful. In the latter years of the Empire, when manpower became scarce, French teenagers on the whole, responded to the call to arms even after almost twenty years of continual warfare. In 1807, Napoleon reached an agreement with the Russians after the Battle of Friedland, which was a bloody battle. However, Russia did not lose any of its territories and agreed to cooperate with Napoleon in the future. After a series of military victories, Bonaparte finally defeated the Holy Roman Empire that existed since 926 A. D. In1812, Napoleon began his fatal Russian campaign, a landmark in the history of the destructive potential of warfare. Virtually all of continental Europe was under his control, and the invasion of Russia was an attempt to force Czar Alexander I to submit once again to the terms o f a treaty that Napoleon had imposed upon him four years earlier. Having gathered nearly half a million soldiers, from France as well as all of the vassal states of Europe, Napoleon entered Russia at the head of the largest army ever seen. The Russians, under Marshal Kutuzov, could not realistically hope to defeat him in a direct confrontation. Instead, they begin a defensive campaign of strategic retreat, devastating the land as they fell back and harassing the flanks of the French. As the summer wore on, Napoleons massive supply lines were stretched ever thinner, and his force began to decline. By September, without having engaged in a single pitched battle, the French Army had been reduced by more than two thirds from fatigue, hunger, and raids by Russian forces. Nonetheless, it was clear that unless the Russians engaged the French Army in a major battle, Moscow would be Napoleons in a matter of weeks. The Czar insisted upon an engagement, and on September 7, with winter closing in and the French army only 70 miles (110 km) from the city, the two armies met at Borodino Field. By the end of the day, 108,000 men had diedbut neither side had gained a decisive victory. Kutuzov realized that any further defense of the city would be senseless, and he withdrew his forces, prompting the citizens of Moscow to begin a massive and panicked exodus. When Napoleons army arrived on September 14, they found a city depopulated and short of supplies, a major comfort in the face of the oncoming winter. To make matters worse, fires broke out in the city that night, and by the next day, the French were lacking shelter as well. After waiting in vain for Alexander to offer to negotiate, Napoleon ordered his troops to begin the march home. As the south route was blocked by Kutuzovs forces (and the French were in no shape for a battle) the retreat retraced the long, devastated route of the invasion. Having waited until mid-October to depart, the exhausted French army found itself i n the middle of an early and cold winter. Temperatures soon dropped well below freezing, food was hard to get, and the march was five hundred miles. Ten thousand men survived. The campaign ensured Napoleons downfall and Russias status as a leading power in post-Napoleonic Europe. Yet even as Russia emerged more powerful than ever from the Napoleonic era, its internal tensions began to increase. Budgetary Slack As A Management Control Mechanism Accounting Essay By the 23rd of June 1812, all the troops had taken their positions. Napoleons main army was between Kovno and Pilviszki. Eugenes army was around Kalvaria. Jerome with his VII Corps was near Novrogod. Macdonald with X Corps was at Tilsit. Swarzenbergs Austrians were near Siedlice. All of these forces totaled up to 499,000 men, with 1146 guns. At the time, Russians had an army of 183,000 men and 15,000 Cossacks with 938 guns. Napoleons main army reached Kovno after crossing the river Niemen between June 24-25 1812. At the same time, Macdonald went over Niemen at Tilsit, eighty miles downstream. Jerome did not cross Neimen until the June 30th at Grodno. Napoleon established headquarters at Kovno and remained in that town for three days. Until Kovno, everything had gone according to the plans, but the following days were to reveal much tougher challenges in terms of climate and road quality. After the Russian incident, Napoleons empire fell apart. England, Russia, Prussia, and Austria allied together to fight the French. On June 13, 1813, Czar Alexander I, the head of the Russians, joined the Prussians and thus, the War of Liberation started. Lucky for Napoleon, he defeated the Russian and Prussian armies in Lutzen and Bautzen. In a three-day battle at Leipzig, also known as the Battle of the Nations, the French were outnumbered in every way. The French had to retreat. Then on March 30, 1814 the allies captured Paris. Even Napoleons generals realized it was a lost fight and gave up. Napoleon was forced to give up the throne on April 6, 1814. Napoleon was exiled from France. He took a few soldiers to his new empire, the small island of Elba, a small island within sight of Corsica. He was allowed to keep his title of emperor and promised to pay two million francs every year to France. After Napoleon’s Exile, European leaders quarreled upon the division of spoils of Napoleon’s empire. The work of deciding the fate of Europe was done at the Congress of Vienna. The congress was hosted by Austria and presided over by Prince Klemens von Metternich, the guiding genius of the conference. Meanwhile, Napoleon has been in Elba for 10 months and in the midst of the squabbles of the quarreling Congress, he had escaped from the island set forth back to France. In conclusion, Napoleon Bonaparte has been a great military genius. He was one of the most powerful people, in my opinion, that I have ever read about. I have learned many things about warfare, strategic importance, and power while doing this paper. French history seemed very interesting to me. I will look forward to doing more history papers about the French. History